What history studies are auxiliary historical disciplines. What are auxiliary historical disciplines

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Department Social and humanitarian disciplines and foreign languagesscove.

TEST

on the topic: “Auxiliary historical disciplines”

by academic discipline: STORY

Kei?s-task 3

Compile and fill out the table “Auxiliary historical disciplines.” Reflect in it the following characteristics: subject of discipline; tasks; contribution to the study of the historical past.

Studying History, starting from dates and events, we often do not notice all its depth, but “History” is not only and not so much dates, it is rather a picture of how people lived - what their names were, where they settled, how they spoke and wrote, what they believed, what they used, how they communicated and collaborated. One general discipline is not enough to describe the entire multifaceted life, therefore, by delving into a narrow topic, historians opened a whole new branch of historical science, organizing its study within the framework of a new, auxiliary discipline. A description of these disciplines is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Auxiliary historical disciplines.

Name disciplines	disciplines		Contribution to the study historical past
Anthropology (cultural, historical)	Culture	The study of culture as a set of material objects, ideas, values, perceptions and behavior patterns.	Knowledge about the main cultural institutions, various aspects of human culture complements and explains historical events, making the reconstruction of certain events more detailed.
Anthroponymy (onomastics)	People's names	The study of people's names (including surnames, patronymics, nicknames and nicknames), their origin, evolution and patterns.	The name carries information about human qualities, connections with family, nationality, occupation, origin from a particular area and class. Names can change with marriage or a secret society, a change of faith or the commission of an act; they reflect both historical events and social phenomena, religious ideas, and national traditions.
Archaeoastronomy	Astronomical ideas of people	Study of archaeological artifacts and ethnographic data for astronomical and cosmological meaning.	Science explains the sources of myths, explains how time was calculated by certain peoples, and allows us to understand what motivated people to study the world.
Archaeography	Written historical sources	Identification and collection of historical monuments, their description and publication, as well as the development of theory and publication of written sources.	Organizes available written historical materials, making them more accessible for the work of scientists.
Archeology		Search and study of the results of human labor activity, carrying out scientific reconstruction based on them, restoring the historical past of mankind.	Science has expanded the spatial and temporal horizon of history beyond the boundaries of civilizations with writing, revealing for scientists the period of human history before the advent of written sources of information.
Archival matter	Historical sources (material)	Storage and recording of historical monuments and sources, providing access to them.	Ensures the safety and, at the same time, accessibility for scientists of material sources, written and not only.
Archontology	Positions and persons occupying them	Studying the chronology of the change of persons holding positions and their biography.	Science makes it possible to resolve chronological and other disputes by clarifying data about rulers, explains political, social and cultural processes, changing milestones, based on information about personalities and positions.
Biography	Biographies	Solving the problems of theoretical and methodological study and formation of biographies of historically important personalities.	If we are talking about historically important personalities, then their life path influenced and, at times, continues to influence the life of society. Therefore, biography is a source of historical significance, and compiling it is a separate science, with its own rules, postulates and axioms.
Bonistics	Banknotes, obsolete	Study of obsolete banknotes and credit documents as historical documents.	The research results make it possible to study the economic and political state of society at the time when certain banknotes were used.
Vexillology	Flags, banners, standards, etc.	Studying the symbolism and use of flags
Genealogy	Seven, childbirth and their connections	Study and systematization of information about the origin and family ties and relationships of people, clans and individuals.	Origin and family ties have always played a role in decision-making at all levels of government. Genealogy sheds light on the causes of many events that took place and those that did not take place.
Heraldry		Studying the heraldic language, special historically established rules, traditions and practices of their application, explaining the meanings of certain elements of coats of arms.	The appearance and change of coats of arms carries information about society and the processes taking place in it (division into social groups, military campaigns, etc.). The correct interpretation will tell you both about family ties, morals, and the events that took place.
Diplomatics	Documentation diplomatic and legal nature.	Studying letters, acts and other documents, both texts and originals, checking them for authenticity, systematization.	Legal documents of antiquity contribute to the development of historical science and contain a large amount of historical information, but it is important that the data be authentic, correctly read and interpreted.
Historiography	Historical science	Studying the history of Historical Science, checking whether the scientific approach is used when writing works by historians.	Influences the formation of historical memory of generations, is responsible for ensuring that the past is restored and recorded with historical accuracy.
Source study	Historical sources	Studying the significance of an intellectual product as a source of information in historical science, techniques and methods for their study and use.
Historical geography	Geography territories at different times	The study of the geography of specific territories in a certain period of history: natural landscape, population and economy, political boundaries and events.	It is a source of topographical information about events (borders, routes), and also connects historical processes with economic geography, the nature of the area, which makes it possible to establish new and verify existing facts.
Codicology	Documentation Handwritten	Studying the history of creation, further fate and role in history, collecting, describing and cataloging handwritten books.	Books are a valuable source of historical data, and not only their text is interesting, because data can be obtained from the materials used and design, bindings and decorations, filigree and handwriting.
Medallerica		Studying the origin and history of medals, the formation and development of medal art,	Medals and medal sets can be used as a source for researching past events, the lives and activities of outstanding personalities, and for studying the history of art.
Methodology of historical	Historical science	The study of the scientific and social status of historical science, its disciplinary structure, develops the theory of historical knowledge, the main theoretical and methodological directions.	Forms scientific and educational prerequisites for conducting historical research.
Metrology (historical)	Measuring systems	Studying the history of the development of various measurement systems, individual measures, their quantitative relationships and real values.	The importance of the discipline is justified by the fact that for understanding and correct reconstruction, a real understanding of the measures and dimensions used in historical documents is necessary.
Necropolitics	Burials and cemeteries	Description, study and preservation of cemeteries and necropolises.	Produces important data for genealogical and biographical historical research, preserving sources of information for future research.
Numismatics	Banknotes	Studying the history of minting and monetary circulation of coins.	It helps to better understand history in the context of the economy of ancient states, and talks about the political system, cities, heroes and events of the past.
Paleography	Writing	Study of the history of writing, changes in graphics (letters, character proportions, fonts and abbreviations), materials and tools	Based on the analysis of graphic forms of writing, its nuances and the appearance of manuscripts, it allows you to date them in time and localize the place of origin of a particular document.
Prosopography	Biographies of historical figures	Creation of collective biographies of persons united by a special characteristic (era or locality, traits, political, ethnic, social, position).	Provides the opportunity to analyze patterns through collective biographies, as a way of studying a specific society in a specific period.
Psychohistory	Psychological motivation	The study of the psychological motivation of people's actions in the past, with special emphasis on the study of family and childhood, anthropology and ethnology.	Research results are needed to understand the emotional nature of the social and political behavior of groups and nations in the past, and the consequences in the present.
Sphragistics (sigillography)		The study of seals and their impressions on various materials, establishing their authenticity, classification, chronology and typification.	Seals are a source of information about intrastate, interstate and private relations in the historical past, because changes in symbolism always occur under the influence of political events.
Toponymy (onomastics)	Geographical names	The study of geographical names, continents, regions, countries and cities, their history of origin, semantic meaning, development, spelling and pronunciation.	Many facts of historical geography and demography cannot be correctly understood without specific knowledge in the field of the history of geographical names, which also complements knowledge about the processes of population migration.
Uniformology	Service uniform	Studying the history of origin and development, characteristic features of military and other service uniforms, relying on material sources (the uniform itself, paintings, photos) and regulations.	The history of costume is closely connected with the everyday and social realities of its time, it makes it possible to determine the social status, and sometimes the personality of a historical person, and to carry out a correct reconstruction of events.
Faleristics	Memorial signs	Study of the history and attribution of orders, medals and other awards.	Many historical periods in event and sociological terms are reflected in award signs; their study in conjunction with the attributes of that time gives a more complete and clear picture of social and political life.
Chronography	Date systems and calendars	The study of how different peoples counted years at different periods of their history and dated documents.	Based on knowledge of how years were measured and named, it is possible to accurately calculate and establish the exact historical date relative to modern chronology.
Chronology	Dates of historical events	Studying historical documents in order to establish the dates of historical events	Historical science, considering the patterns of development of the world, considers human society in space and time, therefore it is extremely important to correctly navigate the sequence of events.
Emblematics		The study of conditionally symbolic images of certain concepts or ideas, which are executed in graphic or plastic form	Emblems, badges and logos are historical monuments that can tell about political, territorial and social changes in society and even the relationship between different national traditions.
Epigraphy	Inscriptions on material sources		Inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals, places of worship, on dishes, on crosses are a valuable source of information, and sometimes the only one, about culture, politics and economics. However, many inscriptions have not yet been fully deciphered, and disputes about them are still ongoing.
Ethnography	Peoples and ethnic groups	The study of the peoples of the world, ethnic groups and entities, their composition, settlement, way of life, their material and spiritual cultures, historical development.	The accumulated material has enormous scientific value, independent of interpretation: the peculiarities of the culture and life of peoples, their values and development features are an integral part of the reconstruction of history, because they shed light on the causes, consequences and course of development of historical events.

Conclusion

Auxiliary historical disciplines allow the researcher to establish a historical fact, prove its reliability, study it comprehensively (causes, prerequisites and consequences), open new pages of history, and deepen our knowledge. anthropology monument archival order

There are as many of these disciplines as there are areas of human knowledge. The information I collected does not pretend to be complete and complete, since I did not consider such highly specialized branches of historical science as filigree, papyrology and birchology, which are branches of paleography, chronicle studies and epistolography, as special cases of epigraphy, iconography and weapons science, the names of which speak for themselves, philately and philocracy, many subdisciplines of onomastics (such as theonymics, geonymics and others), hermeneutics, since in essence it is not an auxiliary historical, but a completely independent discipline with a much wider field of activity than the interpretation of historical documents, historical demography and regional studies, as parts of historical geography, historical medicine, psychology, linguistics and philosophy of history, since their tasks are more likely related to medicine, psychology, philology and philosophy, respectively, or perhaps with history, as well as cliodynamics, the status of which is not yet debated finished.

The list of auxiliary historical disciplines is constantly expanding, so work on sources of new and contemporary times requires further development of existing disciplines and, like the use of ever new technologies in research, processing and storage of data and materials, leads to the emergence of new disciplines.

List of sources used

1. Dmitrieva O. V. // Introduction to special historical disciplines: Textbook - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990. Pp. 280.

2. Grechilo A. Emblematics // Special historical disciplines: editor: head. pos_b. for students K.: Libid, 2008. Pp. 219--223.

3. Gumilyov L.N. Regarding the subject of historical geography // Bulletin of Leningrad University. No. 18, no. 3. - L., 1965. - Page. 112-120.

4. Diplomacy // Universal Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius. -- Access mode: http://megabook.ru/article/Diplomacy (access date 09.12.2017).

5. Efimov N.Yu. Military uniformology as a sociocultural phenomenon: content and development trends // Dissertation for the degree of candidate of philosophical sciences, M., 2010. Pp. 206

6. Kolomiytsev V. F. Methodology of history (From source to research) // “Russian Political Encyclopedia” (ROSSPEN), M., 2001. P. 191

7. Rusina Yu. A. Methodology of source study // Ministry of Education and Science of Russia. Federation, Ural. Feder. univ. Ekaterinburg: Ural. University, 2015. Pp. 118.

8. Superanskaya A.V. What is toponymy? -- M., 1985.

9. Ethnography // Big Encyclopedic Dictionary, ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. Ed. 2nd, revised and additional M.; St. Petersburg, 2000.

10. Robert Sarwark What's in a Flag? // A Brief Introduction to Vexillology Glocal Notes from the International and Area Studies Library. 2015.

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We can include the following sciences as auxiliary historical disciplines:

Heraldry- special historical discipline, studying coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use. It is part of emblems - a group of interrelated disciplines that study emblems. The difference between coats of arms and other emblems is that their structure, use and legal status comply with special, historically established rules. Heraldry precisely determines what and how can be applied to the state coat of arms, family coat of arms, and so on, and explains the meaning of certain figures.

Sphragistics- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials.

Initially developed as a part of diplomacy, dealing with determining the authenticity of documents.

Historical metrology- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development. Often units of measurement did not form the metric system; they are classified as traditional measurement systems. Historical metrology studies the history of the genesis and development of various measurement systems, the names of individual measures, their quantitative relationships, and establishes their real values, that is, their correspondence to modern metric systems. Metrology is closely related to numismatics, since many peoples in the past had measures of weight that coincided with monetary units and had the same name.

Numismatics- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation.

Social functions of numismatics: identification of numismatic cultural monuments; the study of characteristic facts, connections and processes that contribute to a more in-depth understanding of history and fill gaps in historical science.

Chronology- auxiliary historical discipline, establishing dates of historical events and documents; sequence of historical events in time; a list of any events in their time sequence.

Historical geography- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies history through the “prism” of geography; It is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development. At the moment, there are 8 sectors of historical geography:

Historical physical geography (historical geography) is the most conservative branch, studies changes in the landscape;

Historical political geography - studies changes in the political map, political system, routes of conquest;

Historical geography of population - studies ethnographic and geographical features of population distribution in territories;

Historical social geography - studies the relationships of society, the change of social layers;

Historical cultural geography - studies spiritual and material culture;

Historical geography of interaction between society and nature - direct (human influence on nature) and reverse (nature on human);

historical economic geography - studies the development of production, industrial revolutions;

Historical and geographical regional studies.

Archival studies- a scientific discipline that studies and develops theoretical, methodological and organizational issues of archival affairs and its history.

Archeology- a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Ethnography- part of historical science that studies ethnic peoples and other ethnic formations, their origin (ethnogenesis), composition, settlement, cultural and everyday characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.

Historiography is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. Historiography tests how accurately the scientific method is applied when writing a historical work, focusing on the author, his sources, the separation of facts from interpretation, as well as on the style, author's preferences and the audience for which he wrote this work in the field of history.

Historical computer science- an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the methodology of using information technology in the study of the historical process, the publication of historical research and the teaching of historical disciplines, as well as in archival and museum affairs.

Branches of history:economic, political, social, civil, military (history), history of state and law, history of religion, etc.

Auxiliary historical disciplines:

genealogy – the science of the origins and relationships of individuals and families

heraldry – science and coat of arms

chronology - the science that studies chronology systems and calendars

paleography - a science that studies handwritten monuments and ancient writing

metrology - a science that studies the measures of length, area, and volume of weight used in the past in their historical development.

onomastics - a science that studies proper names and the history of their origin. Has several sections:

- toponymy– studies geographical names

- anthroponymy– studies people’s personal names

- ethnonymy– studies the names of tribes and peoples

Source study

Historiography

4. Historical sources: concept and classification

Historical source:

Two historical traditions interpretations:

1. by historical source we mean absolutely everything from where you can get information about the past;

2. historical source means exclusively products of human activity(more popular definition)

"Historical Source"- an object created as a result of human activity, existing at the time of research perception, carrying historical information and being of interest from a cognitive-historical point of view" 1 .

- “Historical sources” – all objects in which historical evidence has been deposited, directly reflecting the historical process and making it possible to study the past of mankind (reflecting real phenomena of social life and human activity) 2.

Source study :

Definitions:

– “A special scientific discipline about historical sources, methods of identifying, criticizing and using them in the work of a historian”;

– “The science that deals with classification, criticism, interpretation and determination of the meaning of historical sources” 3.

Classification of sources on Russian history:

1. Written sources:

♦ epigraphic monuments, i.e. ancient inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, etc.; birch bark letters;

♦ legislative and regulatory acts;

♦ office documents;

♦ periodicals;

♦ statistical sources;

♦ sources of personal origin: memoirs, diaries, letters;

♦ electronic information, Internet.

2. Real sources: tools, handicrafts, household items, clothing, jewelry, coins, weapons, remains of dwellings and other building structures, etc.

3. Ethnographic sources: remains that have survived to this day, remnants of the ancient life of various peoples (customs and rituals).

4. Folklore materials: monuments of oral folk art (legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, anecdotes.

5. Linguistically monuments– geographical names, personal names, etc.

6. Film and photographic documents.

5. Domestic historiography: ambiguity of the concept, stages of development

Historiography(in a broad sense) - special historical discipline, which studies complex, multifaceted and contradictory the process of development of historical science and its patterns 1 .

Main uses of the term "historiography" 2 :

♦ historiography– a set of scientific worksabout any problem or period historical development.

For example: historiography of the history of Kievan Rus (Muscovite Russia, etc.), historiography of the socio-political system of the Kievan state (oprichnina, Peter's reforms, the Decembrist movement, foreign policy of the 20th century, etc.).

In this case, historiography means all historical literature created on this issue throughout the entire period of its scientific study;

♦ historiography – a set of historical works,created in one or another era, at one or another stage of development of historical science (regardless of their thematic content).

For example: Russian historiography of the 18th century, Russian historiography of the second half of the 19th century, the formation of Marxist historiography in Soviet historical science, Soviet historiography of the 60s - 70s. XX century etc.

Scientific coverage of Russian history begins in the 18th century, when knowledge about the past, previously contained in the form of scattered information, began to be systematized and generalized. Historical science was freed from the religious idea of the historical process, which received an increasingly realistic explanation.

First scientific work according to the history of Russia belonged to Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686–1750) – the largest noble historian of the era of Peter I. His major work " Russian history since ancient times"covered the history of the Russian state in 5 volumes.

Speaking as a champion of a strong monarchy, V. N. Tatishchev first formulated the state scheme of Russian history, highlighting several of its stages: from perfect “single power” (from Rurik to Mstislav) through the “aristocracy of the appanage period” (1132–1462) to “the restoration of the monarchy under John the Great III and its strengthening under Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century.”

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711–1765) - author of a number of works on Russian history ("A Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy", "Ancient Russian History"), in which he initiated the fight against the Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state. This theory, as you know, was created by the Germans Bayer and Miller and substantiated the inability of the supposedly ignorant Slavs to create their own statehood and called on the Varangians for this.

M.V. Lomonosov presented a number of arguments that refuted the speculations of German scientists. He proved the antiquity of the Rus tribe, which preceded the calling of Rurik, and showed the originality of Slavic settlements in Eastern Europe. The scientist drew attention to an important fact: the name Rus was extended to those Slavic tribes to which the Varangians had nothing to do. M.V. Lomonosov pointed out the absence of Scandinavian and Germanic words in the Russian language, which would be inevitable given the role that the Normanists ascribe to the Scandinavians.

The first major work on the history of the Russian state belonged to Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766–1826) – a prominent historian, writer and publicist. At the end of 1803, Karamzin offered Alexander I his services to write a complete history of Russia, “not barbaric and shameful for his reign.” The proposal was accepted. Karamzin was officially entrusted with writing the history of Russia and a pension was established as being in the public service. Karamzin devoted his entire subsequent life mainly to the creation of " History of the Russian State"(12 volumes). The central idea of labor: autocratic rule is the best form of statehood for Russia.

Karamzin put forward the idea that “Russia was founded by victories and unity of command, perished from discord and was saved by a wise autocracy.” This approach was the basis for the periodization of the history of the Russian state.

In it, the scientist highlighted six periods:

♦ “the introduction of monarchical power” (862–1015) – from the “calling of the Varangian princes” to Svyatopolk Vladimirovich;

♦ “fading of autocracy” (1015–1238) – from Svyatopolk Vladimirovich to Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich;

♦ “the death of the Russian state” and the gradual “state revival of Russia” (1238–1462) – from Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich to Ivan III;

♦ “establishment of autocracy” (1462–1533) – from Ivan III to Ivan IV the Terrible;

♦ restoration of the “unique power of the tsar” and the transformation of autocracy into tyranny (1533–1598) – from Ivan IV the Terrible to Boris Godunov;

♦ “time of troubles” (1598–1613) – from Boris Godunov to Mikhail Romanov.

Sergey Mikhailovich Soloviev (1820–1879) – head of the department of Russian history at Moscow University (since 1845), author of a unique encyclopedia of Russian history, a multi-volume major work " History of Russia since ancient times". The principle of his research is historicism. He does not divide the history of Russia into periods, but connects them, considers the development of Russia and Western Europe as a unity. Soloviev reduces the pattern of development of the country to three defining conditions: “the nature of the country,” “the nature of the tribe,” “ course of external events."

In periodization, the scientist “erases” the concepts of “Varangian” period, “Mongolian” and appanage.

First stage Russian history - from ancient times to the 16th century. inclusive – is determined by the struggle of the “tribal principle” through “patrimonial relations” to “state life”.

Second phase(XVII – mid-XVII century) – “preparation” for a new order of things and “the era of Peter I”, “the era of transformations”.

Third stage(second half of the 17th – second half of the 19th century) – direct continuation and completion of the transformations of Peter I.

In the 50s XIX century has developed state (legal) school in Russian historiography . It was a product of bourgeois liberalism, which did not want a repetition of Western revolutions in Russia. In this regard, liberals turned to the ideal strong state authorities. The founder of the state school was Moscow University professor (lawyer, historian, idealist philosopher) Boris Nikolaevich Chicherin (1828– 1904).

Prominent Russian historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) adhered to the positivist "theory of facts". He identified “three main forces that build human society”: the human personality, human society, and the nature of the country. Klyuchevsky considered the engine of historical progress to be “mental labor and moral achievement.” In the development of Russia, Klyuchevsky recognized the enormous role of the state (political factor), attached great importance to the process of colonization (natural factor), and trade (economic factor).

IN " Russian history course“Klyuchevsky gave a periodization of the country’s past. It was based on geographical, economic and social characteristics, which, in his opinion, determined the content of historical periods. However, they were dominated by the state scheme.

The entire Russian historical process - from ancient times to the reforms of the 60s. 19th century – Klyuchevsky divided it into four periods:

♦ “Dnieper, city, trading Rus'” (from the 8th to the 13th centuries). In the first period, the main arena of activity of the Slavs was the Dnieper region. The author did not connect the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs with the Normans, noting the existence of principalities among them long before the appearance of the Varangians;

♦ “Rus of the Upper Volga, appanage princely, free agricultural” (XII – mid-XV century). Characterizing the second period, Klyuchevsky idealized princely power and exaggerated its organizing role;

♦ “Great Rus'. Moscow, royal-boyar, military-agricultural” (XV – early XVII centuries). The third period of Russian history is associated with Great Russia, covering vast areas not only of Eastern Europe, but also of Asia. This was the first time that a strong state unification of Rus' was created;

♦ “All-Russian, imperial, noble” – the period of serfdom, agriculture and factory farming (XVII–mid-XIX centuries). This is the time of further expansion of Great Russia and the formation of the Russian Empire. The transformations of Peter I were considered by the author as the main feature of this period, but Klyuchevsky showed duality in his assessment of them. Klyuchevsky influenced the formation of the historical views of both bourgeois historians (P. N. Milyukov, M. M. Bogoslovsky, A. A. Kizevetter) and Marxist historians ( M. N. Pokrovsky 1 , Yu. V. Gauthier, S. V. Bakhrushin).

In Soviet historiography, periodization was based on a formational approach, according to which in Russian history the following were distinguished:

♦ primitive communal system (until the 9th century);

♦ feudalism (IX – mid-19th century);

♦ capitalism (second half of the 19th century – 1917);

♦ socialism (since 1917).

Within the framework of these formational periods of national history, certain stages were identified that revealed the process of origin and development of the socio-economic formation. Thus, the feudal period was divided into three stages:

♦ “early feudalism” (Kievan Rus);

♦ “developed feudalism” (feudal fragmentation and the formation of a Russian centralized state);

♦ “late feudalism” (“new period of Russian history”, decomposition and crisis of feudal-serf relations).

The period of capitalism fell into two stages - “pre-monopoly capitalism” and “imperialism”. In Soviet history, the stages of “war communism”, “new economic policy”, “building the foundations of socialism”, “complete and final victory of socialism” and “development of socialism on own basis."

IN post-perestroika period In connection with the transition to a pluralistic interpretation of Russian history, there was a reassessment of both its individual events and entire periods and stages. In this regard, there is, on the one hand, a return to the periodizations of Solovyov, Klyuchevsky and other pre-revolutionary historians, on the other, attempts are being made to give a periodization in accordance with new values and methodological approaches.

Thus, a periodization of Russian history appeared from the point of view of the alternativeness of its historical development, considered in the context of world history.

Some historians propose to distinguish two periods in Russian history:

♦ “from Ancient Rus' to Imperial Russia” (IX–XVIII centuries);

♦ “the rise and fall of the Russian Empire” (XIX–XX centuries).

Historians of Russian statehood highlight ten of its periods:

♦ Ancient Rus' (IX–XII centuries);

♦ the period of independent feudal states of Ancient Rus' (XII–XV centuries);

♦ Russian (Moscow) state (XV–XVII centuries);

♦ Russian Empire during the period of absolutism (XVIII – mid-XIX centuries);

♦ Russian Empire during the period of transition to a bourgeois monarchy (mid-19th – early 20th centuries);

♦ Russia during the period of the bourgeois-democratic republic (February–October 1917);

♦ the period of formation of Soviet statehood (1918–1920);

♦ transition period and NEP period (1921–1930);

♦ period of state-party socialism (1930 – early 60s);

♦ period of crisis of socialism (60–90s).

This periodization is due to several factors. The main ones are the socio-economic structure of society (level of economic and technical development, forms of ownership) and the factor of state development.

This periodization, like any other, is conditional, but it allows us to systematize the training course to a certain extent and consider the main stages of the formation of statehood in Russia.

Historical science has accumulated extensive experience in creating works on the history of Russia. Numerous works published in various years, both in the country and abroad, reflect various concepts of the historical development of Russia, its relationship with the world historical process.

In recent years, fundamental works on the history of Russia by major pre-revolutionary historians have been republished, including the works of S. M. Solovyov, N. M. Karamzin, V. O. Klyuchevsky and others. The works of B. A. Rybakov, B. D. Grekov, S. D. Bakhrushev, M. N. Tikhomirov, M. P. Pokrovsky, A. N. Sakharov, Yu. N. Afanasyev and others. This list can be continued.

Today we have works on the history of Russia that are interesting in content, which are available to everyone who is interested in history and strives for a deep study of it.

When studying the history of Russia in the context of the world historical process, it is necessary to take into account that the traditional idea of \u200b\u200babroads today has radically changed. The historical reality is such that we are faced with such concepts as “near abroad” and “far abroad”. In the recent past, these distinctions did not exist.

Literature:

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2. Amelina E. The concept of “civilization” yesterday and today // Social sciences and modernity.. 1996. No. 1.

3. Bordyugov G.A. Each generation writes its own history // Historical studies of recent years. M., 1996. S. 427-436.

4. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. Russian history. Tutorial. M., 2005.

5. Ionov I.N., Khachaturyan V.M. Theory of civilizations from antiquity to the end of the nineteenth century. St. Petersburg, 2002.

6. Iskenderov A.A. Historical science on the threshold of the 21st century // Questions of history. 1996. No. 4. P. 3-31

7. Source study of modern history Russia: theory, methodology and practice / Ed. ed. A.K. Sokolova. M., 2004.

8. « Historiography of Russian history before 1917. In two volumes. Textbook for higher education students. textbook establishments. M., 2003.”; Soviet historiography /Ed. Yu.N. Afanasyeva. M., 1996.

9. Historiography of Russian history until 1917. In two volumes / Ed. M.Yu. Lachevoy. T. 1. M., 2003.

10. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the nineteenth century / Ed. B.V. Leachman. Ekaterinburg, 1994.

11. Erokhin V.N. On the question of the methodological situation in modern Russian historical literature // Historical science on the threshold of the third millennium. Abstracts of reports of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. Tyumen, 2002. pp. 6-7.

12. Zhuravlev V.V. Methodology of historical science. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow? // Centaur. 1995. 3 6. pp. 140-146.

13.Zakharov A. Once again about the theory of formations // Social sciences and modernity. 1992. No. 2.

14. Zinoviev V.P. Russia of the twentieth century in Russia in the light of the theory of modernization // Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 18-26.

15. Kantor K.M. The fourth round of history // Questions of philosophy. 1996. 3 7. pp. 19-43.

16. Kelle V.Zh., Kovalzon M.Ya.. Theory and history (Problems of the historical process). M., 1981.

17. Kovalchenko I.D. Theoretical and methodological problems of historical research // New and recent history. 1995. No. 1. P.3-33.

18. Kovalchenko I.D. Multidimensionality of historical development // Free Thought. 1995. No. 10.

19. Kovalchenko I.D. Methods of historical research. M., 1987.

20. Korshunov E.G. Civilization approach at the present stage. Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. P.61-65.

21. Krugova N.I. On the significance of the discussions of the 60s. for understanding the ways of development of Soviet historical science // Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 55-60.

22. Mamonov V.F. Crisis and historical science. Chelyabinsk, 1997. 160 p.

23. Medushevskaya O.I., Rumyantseva M.F. Methodology of history. M., 1994.

24. Methodological searches in modern historical science // New and recent history. 1996. No. 3. P.75-90; No. 4. P.79-99

25. Mogilnitsky B.G. Historical science and historical consciousness at the turn of the century // Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. P. 5-26.

26. Novikova L.I. Civilization as an idea and as an explanatory principle of historical process // Civilization. M., 1992. Issue. 1.

27. Novikova L.I., Sizemskaya I.N. Russian philosophy of history. Lecture course. Second edition, expanded. M., 1999.

28. Polyakov Yu.A. How to reflect the multidimensionality of history // New and recent history. 2003. No. 4. P.3-10

29. Problems of historical methodology// New and recent history. 1996. N" 6. P.60-75;

30. Rumyantseva M.F.. Theory of history. M., 2002.

31. Yu.A. The concept of a historical source in source studies of the twentieth century // Historical science on the threshold of the third millennium. Tyumen, 2000. pp. 36-37.

32. Svishchev P.A. Historical source: definition, structure, problems of truth // Historical science on the threshold of the third millennium. Tyumen, 2000. pp. 37-39.

33. Smolensky N.I. Problems of the logic of general historical development // New and recent history. 2000. No. 1. P. 3-18.

34. Soviet historiography /Ed. Yu.N. Afanasyeva. M., 1996.

35. Sogrin V.V. Ideology and historiography in Russia: indissoluble marriage? // History of philosophy. 1996. 3 7. pp. 3-18.

36. Khmylev L.N. Problems of the crisis of modern domestic historical science Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 41-48.

37. Formation or civilization? Materials of the “round table” // Questions of Philosophy. 1989. No. 10.

38. Frolov I.V. A new paradigm of historical knowledge and the problem of historical truth // Historical science on the threshold of the third millennium. Tyumen, 2000. pp. 29-31.

1 Term « methodology" comes from the Greek words "method" and "logos". Literally it means “path of knowledge.”

Common in science three definitions concept of "methodology"

1). Methodology– the doctrine of methods (ways) of cognition or a set of techniques (rules, principles) of scientific research. Those. in this definition it is methods Andprinciples research(1st question of the lecture plan);

2). Methodology – system of theory (concepts ) , which serve as a guiding tool for scientific analysis (2nd question of the lecture plan);

3.) Combines the first two definitions: Methodology of history- this is a system principles And methods historical research, which is based on the theory of historical knowledge.

2Speech by V.A. Dyakova: Current problems of the theory of history. Materials of the “round table” // Questions of history. 1994. No. 6. P. 96.

3Sm. discussions in Soviet literature of the 60s. about the subject of history: Khmylev L.N. Problems of the crisis of modern domestic historical science //Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 44-45.

1 Current problems of the theory of history. Materials from the round table. Speech by A.A. Iskanderova // Questions of history. 1994. No. 6. P. 46.

2Lichman B.V. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the nineteenth century. Ekaterinburg, 1994. See criticism: Frolov I.V. A new paradigm of historical knowledge and the problem of historical truth // Historical science on the threshold of the third millennium. Tyumen, 2000. P. 29-30.

3Assessment of the problem of “reliability of historical knowledge” in the speech of A.A. Iskanderova (Current problems of the theory of history. Materials of the “round table” // Questions of history. 1994. No. 6. P. 47). See also criticism of this provision: Frolov I.V. A new paradigm of historical knowledge and the problem of historical truth... P. 30.

Apparently, we should talk not about historical truth, but objectivity historical research. “Objectivity” is the achievement of greater knowledge in a particular area compared to predecessors // Source studies of modern Russian history: theory, methodology and practice / Under the general. ed. A.K. Sokolova. M., 2004. P. 58.

1 This research principle in Soviet historical science was called principle partisanship - the obligation to be on the side of the advanced social class, which was considered by Marxists to be the working class, and by Soviet historians - “the combat-tested vanguard of the working class - the Communist Party.”

2 In the literature, sometimes the principles of historical science include principles « relativity», « comprehensiveness" And " determinism».

1Characteristics of methods from the textbook by A.P. Derevianko:

♦ Chronologically problematic method - involves the study of history by periods or eras, and within them - by problems.

♦ Problem-chronological– involves the study of any historical phenomenon (aspect of the life of society, the state) in its consistent historical development.

♦ Synchronistic method - allows you to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places (regions of the country, in other countries, etc.)

♦ Comparative-historical method - aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine changes that have occurred, and identify ways of social development.

♦ Rretrospective

♦ Structural-systemic method - establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are identified within a certain chronological framework.

1Rretrospective method - allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development.

1 M.F. Rumyantseva. Theory of history. M., 2002.

2 Source study of modern Russian history: theory, methodology and practice / Ed. ed. A.K. Sokolova. M., 2004. P. 54.

3 Historiography of Russian history before 1917. In two volumes / Ed. M.Yu. Lachevoy. T. 1. M., 2003. P. 19.

4M.F. Rumyantseva. Theory of history. M., 2002. P. 43-50.

5Medushevskaya O.I., Rumyantseva M.F. Methodology of history. M., 1994. P. 6.

1One of the persistent misconceptions of everyday consciousness is the belief that theories are created by generalizing facts. However, it is certain that Before the start of the research, the historian already has some ideas in his head, which force him to turn to the study of certain issues, search and select certain sources, extract specific information from them, present it this way and not otherwise, etc. Therefore, the real choice is made not between an “empty head” and consciousness, but between a meaningful, logically structured research hypothesis and the above-mentioned misconception // M.F. Rumyantseva. Theory of history. M., 2002. pp. 33-34.

1Point of view: “history as a science arises within the framework of rationalism” // Medushevskaya O.I., Rumyantseva M.F. Methodology of history. M., 1994. P. 6.

2The origins of European rationalism date back to antiquity, when a certain type of rational thinking was formed, the most important feature of which was the desire to understand the internal foundations of being // Khmylev L.N. Problems of the crisis of modern domestic historical science Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 41-48.

3The concept of “philosophy of history” see: Medushevskaya O.I., Rumyantseva M.F. Methodology of history. M., 1994. P. 5.

4For the first time in Soviet science formation theory(five-fold scheme of world history) was sharply criticized during discussions in the 60s. Representatives of the “new historical school” formulated two fundamental provisions: 1) world history has developed and is currently developing asynchronously, 2) not all countries and peoples have gone through all formations. The general conclusion was: world history cannot be considered as a single process of a natural transition from one formation to another. The “New Historical School” was destroyed // Khmylev L.N. Problems of the crisis of modern domestic historical science // Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. P. 45. See also: Krugova N.I. On the significance of the discussions of the 60s. to understand the ways of development of Soviet historical science. Right there. pp. 55-60.

During the discussions, the idea was voiced for the first time about the need to study the history of the countries of the East on the basis of a civilizational approach // Korshunov E.G. Civilizational approach at the present stage Ibid. P. 61.

5Source studies of modern Russian history: theory, methodology and practice / Ed. ed. A.K. Sokolova. M., 2004. P. 11. More about the theory of socio-economic formations: Kelle V.Zh., Kovalzon M.Ya. Theory and history (Problems of the historical process). M., 1981. P. 73-97.

1Discussions in modern science about the attitude to Marxist methodology and formation theory: Current problems in the theory of history. Materials of the “round table” // Questions of history. 1994. No. 6 and others.

2The concept of “civilization” appears in the 18th century. Used by French enlightenment philosophers. Civilized (civilized) was a society based on the principles of reason and justice (as opposed to savagery and barbarism).

Civilization (from Latin civil, state):

synonym for culture;

level, stage of social development of material and spiritual culture (ancient, modern civilizations);

stage of social development following barbarism.

// Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1987. P. 1478.

3 Kantor K.M. The fourth round of history // Questions of philosophy. 1996. 3 7. pp. 21-22.

4Main work N.Ya. Danilevsky “Russia and Europe. A look at the cultural and political relations of the Slavic world to the Germanic-Romanic one.”

5Main work O. Spengler “The Decline of Europe” . Essays on the morphology of world history."

1Main work A. Toynbee “Comprehension of History” .

2 Basic works by L.N. Gumilyov :

Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth

Geography of ethnos in the historical process

Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe.

From Rus' to Russia

Search for a fictional kingdom

- "Arabesque" Stories

1Determinism - means that all events taking place in the world occur under certain conditions, and that outside of these conditions they cannot occur.

1Modernization(from French - modern, to make modern): improvement, renewal and change of the existing political regime, economy, culture.

Modernization – This is the path of “catching up” development.

The modernization process took place in different countries with varying degrees of intensity and had different forms and results.

As a rule, they distinguish two types (two models) of modernization: evolutionary and revolutionary. Evolutionary The model is a gradual, smooth development of the reform process, stretching over decades and even centuries.

Revolutionary- is characterized by a certain and very sharp break in traditions and is perceived by contemporaries as the beginning of a new era. (In Russia – the transformations of Peter 1 and the “Stalinist” modernization of the 30s).

2See more details: Zinoviev V.P. Russia of the twentieth century in Russia in the light of the theory of modernization // Historical science at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference. T. 1. Tomsk, 1999. pp. 18-26.

1Svishchev P.A. Historical

Today there are about 2.5 thousand different sciences in the world. Most of them can be divided into two categories: natural (studying the laws of nature) and humanitarian (studying human society). Some sciences originated in ancient times, others appeared relatively recently. History is a humanitarian discipline that dates back more than 2 millennia. Her father is considered to be Herodotus, a scientist who lived in Ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. He is the author of the treatise "History", which describes the events of the Greco-Persian wars and the customs of the people who lived in those times. The work of Herodotus is the oldest piece of literature containing reliable information about the development of society.

The importance of auxiliary historical disciplines

The subject of historical science is the study of the past of human society and the determination of the patterns of its development. Modern scientists examine past times from various angles: they study everyday life, the domestic and foreign policies of states, their culture, diplomatic and financial relations, the activities of political and public figures, and so on. Auxiliary historical disciplines facilitate the study of the human past. These include archaeology, numismatics, heraldry, sphragistics, paleography, metrology, chronology, etc. A lot of interesting information was obtained thanks to historical geography. Without a thorough study of the listed sciences, it is difficult to understand the past of mankind.

Ancient excavations

Archeology is a science that studies the history of ancient people using preserved monuments (cemeteries, sites, settlements, weapons, household items, jewelry). To search for objects, scientists first conduct field research, then it is the turn of excavations. Found archaeological monuments are carefully studied in laboratory conditions: they are classified, their age and scope of application are determined. Objects recovered from excavations are of great scientific importance as they help shed light on the origins and development of human society.

The concept of paleography

Paleography is a discipline whose object of study is ancient writing and everything connected with it. Ancient texts written on papyri, parchment and paper are the most important sources of information containing descriptions of real events centuries ago. However, not a single ancient handwritten material will be of interest to historical science if it is not deciphered. Paleographers study the text, determine its author, the date of writing, as well as the age and authenticity of the document itself.

With the development of this auxiliary discipline, scientists were able to study the history of the Ancient World in much deeper and more detail. For example, about the social revolution in Egypt that occurred in 1750 BC. e., was learned from a manuscript found at the end of the 19th century in the Saqqara necropolis. A detailed study of the document showed that it dates back to the 18th century. BC e. and describes real historical events.

Heraldry and sphragistics, their connection

The science of coats of arms is called heraldry. In ancient times, all noble persons and families had their own emblems. Later they began to appear in cities and states. The shape of the coats of arms, the drawings and inscriptions applied to them had their own deep meaning, corresponding to the established foundations of society. A specialist only needs to look at the sign offered to him to determine what clan or state it belonged to and what its appearance indicates. Ancient manuscripts were often decorated with coats of arms, so deciphering them requires knowledge not only of paleography, but also of heraldry.

The science of coats of arms has a close relationship with sphragistics, a discipline that studies seals and their display on different surfaces. Sometimes it is also called sigillography. Initially, it was an integral part of diplomacy, which deals with determining the authenticity of historical documents, but gradually separated from it and became an independent discipline. The close connection between heraldry and sphragistics lies in the fact that the same images were used in the manufacture of coats of arms and seals.

Numismatics and metrology

When studying auxiliary historical disciplines, you must definitely pay attention to numismatics - the science of coins and their circulation. The study of ancient money can convey to modern people information about destroyed cities that have not survived to this day, important historical events and great people of past eras. When minting old coins, the same symbols were used as on seals and coats of arms, so here too there is a connection between individual historical disciplines.

Metrology is the study of measures of weight, area, volume and distance used in the past. It helps to analyze the features of economic development of states in different eras. Since the names of measures of weight and money counting in ancient times often coincided, metrology should be studied together with numismatics.

Historical chronology and geography

Historical geography will help determine the places of origin of ancient civilizations, the directions of migration of peoples, the boundaries of countries and cities, changes in climatic conditions and their impact on the settlement of people. Old maps that have survived to this day allow us to more deeply understand the atmosphere and events of ancient eras.

Among the auxiliary historical disciplines it is also worth mentioning chronology - a science whose subject of study is time calculation systems and ancient calendars of different peoples. It also determines the dates of events that occurred and the sequence in which they occurred.

The above sciences are studied in detail in the history departments of universities. In higher educational institutions, courses are taught in auxiliary disciplines; archeology, historical geography and other sciences are taught separately. A large amount of literature on the topic is published today for students. There are textbooks, teaching aids, and monographs here. G. A. Leontyeva, “Auxiliary Historical Disciplines” is the most popular book among history students. This textbook consists of several parts, each of which is devoted to a separate science. In it you can find information about heraldry, chronology, paleography, metrology and other sciences. Thanks to the easy presentation of the material, students can comprehensively study auxiliary historical disciplines. The textbook is considered the most modern today; it allows you to gain in-depth knowledge of the subject, which will subsequently help a person carefully examine all materials and objects.

Source study and auxiliary historical disciplines

For a long time, source study was considered one of the auxiliary historical disciplines. Recurrences of such attitudes still occur today. On the one hand, if we take into account exclusively auxiliary functions, it may seem fair to combine source studies with auxiliary historical disciplines or include it in their complex, since it ultimately serves and facilitates historical knowledge, optimizing the functioning of the “source-researcher” system . On the other hand, to resolve the issue of the relationship between source studies and auxiliary historical disciplines, it is necessary to conduct a comparative study of them, clarifying: what are the object, subject and tasks of each individual auxiliary historical discipline and their entire complex.

Auxiliary historical disciplines (hereinafter referred to as VID) are a collective concept. At the present stage of development of branches of historical knowledge, their complex is constantly expanding and now includes more than 50 items. The very word – “auxiliary” – indicates the place of these disciplines in historical science.

Auxiliary historical disciplines- branches of historical knowledge in which epistemological functions are of an auxiliary nature, contributing to the solution of the main questions of historical research .

Each of the VID complex solves important issues, however, as a rule, they are of a private nature. The use of their methods makes it possible to obtain knowledge about individual aspects and properties of any groups of sources, in some cases simultaneously covering different types sources (written, visual, material). VIEWS expand and deepen our knowledge about past historical reality, including sources, as its derivative, as part of this reality and its reflection.

In modern historical literature there is still no generally accepted classification of VIDs, although it has been proposed to divide the entire complex of VIDs into two (I.A. Bulygin and others) or three (L.E. Shepelev and others) groups.

According to some researchers, one group included disciplines studying any specific set of sources. Heraldry studies coats of arms, diplomacy - acts, numismatics - coins, sphragistics - seals.

The second covered disciplines studying one of the sources, a certain range of data contained in the sources. Researchers included in this group: archival science, the subject of which is the collection, description and storage of sources; archaeography, which deals with the publication of sources; genealogy, the subject of which was the study of family ties of people; metrology, which studies the system of various measures; paleography, which focused on the external features of sources; textual criticism, which analyzed the history of the text of sources; chronology devoted to the problem of measuring time. In order to develop and clarify this classification, a proposal was made to separate archival science and archeography into a separate, third group. Some researchers (D.S. Likhachev and others) considered textual criticism to be a separate and independent discipline (and even a science) that emerged from the VID complex.

The shortcomings of such proposals were obvious, since when dividing types of types into groups, different parameters were used as a criterion: in one case, the scope of the study, in the second, its subject.

Such an approach contradicted the laws and principles of logic - the basis of division should be uniform.

It is obvious that the classification criterion must simultaneously cover such parameters as: object, subject and research tasks related to each of them.

Let's remember:

an object- This is what, What is being studied, i.e. that real object that existed and exists in reality (was created in the past and has survived to this day) and to which the research is directed;

item- This target or vision angle, with which or under which the object is studied;

tasks- it's a complex problems, requiring a solution based on the study of a given object from a selected angle to achieve the stated research goal.

Based on these parameters, the VID complex can be divided into three groups.

1. The disciplines of one of them study any one side , one Part, one property(characteristics) of information of different types and types of historical sources: paleography(including neography as its branch), papyrology And Birchology, filigree science, epigraphy, metrology And chronology, and genealogy.

The object of the disciplines included in this group are sources of any type containing the necessary information corresponding to the subject of a particular type; each has its own subject, covering a certain part of information; The task is to comprehensively study this side of the source information.

For example, paleography studies external signs written historical sources. Its object is textual, written (handwritten and printed) sources, and its subject is their graphic and design features. The task of a paleographer is to study the attributes characteristic of a source: the material on which it was created (parchment, paper, birch bark, silk, etc.); the writing or printing instruments with which it was made (quill or metal pen, ballpoint pen, printing press, hectograph, typewriter or printer, etc.); features and evolution of the author's writing and handwriting; decoration of manuscripts and printed publications (miniatures, filigree - watermarks, caricatures and other drawings that enhanced the emotional perception of the text). The cumulative study of these features makes it possible to establish the time and place of creation of the source, its author (scribe), the financial and/or social status of the persons who created the source (Russian anti-government foreign organizations, for example, published their newspapers and leaflets on tissue paper to facilitate transportation of the publication to Russia ; magazines aimed at a wealthy audience and popularizing fashionable clothing and interiors, were published on luxurious paper of the best grades and provided with colorful illustrations). Previously, it was believed that the object of paleography was only ancient documents. Now there is a tendency to include modern sources in its object. In general, paleography deals with the study of the history of writing in connection with the development of society. At the present stage, paleography (or neography) methods are actively used by criminologists to determine the “culprits” of creating a document by handwriting or typographic font.

It is important to note that the VIS classified in the first group focus their attention only on three types of historical sources (written, material and pictorial), but the phonic ones seem to have “fallen out” of this circle. This circumstance alone shows that the object of VID allocated to the first group is much smaller, narrower than that of source studies, since it studies all types of sources, regardless of the form in which they record, store and transmit information. In the same way, the subject and tasks of this group are narrower than that of source studies, since it is aimed at determining the entire scientific and educational potential of each source studied.

2. TYPES included in another group comprehensively And fully study information about any one complex (type or type) of historical sources.

So, for example, an object heraldry- state, city and family coats of arms, faleristics– awards (orders, medals, etc.), numismatics- coins, bonistics- paper banknotes, diplomacy- acts, sphragistics- seals. Each of them has exclusively its own object of study, which is studied with the greatest possible completeness, and, therefore, the subject and tasks they have are fundamentally similar - the study of all the features of the appearance, structure, form and content of the source. In other words, the difference in VIEW within this group is due to different objects, and not to the subject, which directs the researcher to analyze all the information of the selected object.

The study of state emblems and various award insignia is of particular importance, as it allows you to see the past from a unique perspective, which is not revealed by other types of sources.

For example, the award system that existed in Russia XVIII – first half XIX century, clearly characterized its feudal character. Privately owned peasants did not have the right to wear insignia received for their feats. Therefore, Alexei Kropotkin (father of the revolutionary Peter Kropotkin) wore the Order of St. Anne because during the Caucasian War his orderly Frol saved a small child from the fire.

Writers, artists and scientists at that time relatively rarely received state awards, since literary, artistic or scientific activities were considered a private matter and this reflected the attitude of the tsarist government towards the democratic intelligentsia. Orders were received only by those figures who fulfilled state orders with their works (historian N.M. Karamzin, architects A.N. Voronikhin and A.D. Zakharov, artists K.P. Bryullov and V.V. Vereshchagin).

Studying state emblems allows you to clearly see the process of state building and understand the declared character of the state, reflected in the attributes (symbols) of the coat of arms. For example, since ancient times, all state emblems had among their attributes images of some kind of predatory animals or birds (lions, eagles, etc.).

Russian coat of arms XV V. included two emblems: a horseman with a spear, striking a serpent (“rider”), and a Byzantine black double-headed eagle, crowned with two crowns - a symbol of the perception of power from the fallen Byzantine Empire. Since 1625, the double-headed eagle was depicted under three crowns, which symbolized the unification of Great Rus', Little Rus' and White Rus'. The large coat of arms of the Russian Empire, approved in 1882, was a golden shield with a black double-headed eagle holding a scepter and orb in its paws. He was crowned with two imperial crowns, above which was placed another larger crown with flowing ribbons of the Order of St. Andrew. After the February Revolution of 1917, the state emblem of Russia lost the imperial crowns and other attributes of power - what remained was the double-headed eagle, redrawn from Ivan’s seal III.

Only the coat of arms of the Soviet state (RSFSR, approved on July 24, 1918) did not have threatening symbols. For the first time in history, fundamentally new attributes were introduced into it, reflecting the peacefulness and class-political structure of the state: a red shield (banner); a five-pointed star is a sign of eternity, light and alluring purpose; ears of grain entwined with ribbons symbolizing the union of republics; hammer and sickle as a sign of the union of workers and peasants. The revolutionary foreign policy objectives were reflected by the motto of the coat of arms - “Workers of all countries, unite!”, located on the red ribbon connecting the ears of corn.

Numismatics and bonistics make it possible to identify information not only on the history of monetary circulation, but also provide rich material on the history of the economic and political life of society. At the same time, researchers pay special attention to the study of images (iconography) on coins, banknotes and banknotes, as well as to the mottos (legends) on them.

A special place in this group of views is occupied by diplomacy, which studies acts - documents formalizing any agreement or transaction (between states, organizations and individuals). Formulary analysis, developed by specialists in diplomacy, is currently actively used as a method for studying written sources of other types and forms that have a stable, permanent and mandatory structure - a formulary.

For example, the text of international treaties usually contains a preamble that explains the goals of the contracting parties; the preamble is followed by text divided into articles; the final protocol must indicate the date, place of signing of the document and the names of diplomats or political figures who signed the agreement on behalf of their governments. It must be taken into account that the names under the text in many cases do not belong to the persons who drew up the document, and, therefore, this part of it cannot serve as information about the authors of the agreement.

Let's give a typical example. Under the text of the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty of 1774 are the signatures of P. A. Rumyantsev and his assistant N. V. Repnin. However, the real author of the text, who defended it in stubborn negotiations with Turkish representatives, was a diplomat, the representative of Russia in Constantinople A. M. Obrezkov (1718 - 1787), who was unable, due to river floods, to arrive at the headquarters of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army - the place of signing agreement between Russia and Turkey.

Another TYPE of this group is closely related to diplomacy - sphragistics. Initially, it was part of diplomacy, since its task was to establish the authenticity of acts based on the study of the seals that sealed and certified the document. However, as seals were found that had lost connection with the document (this was especially true for the so-called hanging seals - papyrus, parchment or paper could be frayed at the place where the seal was attached, or the lace could rot), sphragistics became a separate discipline. The results of the study of seals expand the knowledge of historians about the socio-political system of states, about the relationships between various state and social structures. Particular attention is paid to the personal seals of the authors of letters and other types of sources, since they are used to establish the authorship of the text.

So, heraldry and faleristics, numismatics and bonistics, diplomacy and sphragistics constitute another group of VIDs. The criterion for combining them into it is determined by the commonality of the subject of each of them - a comprehensive study of its object, despite the fact that each discipline has its own, special one.

3. Another group of views is represented by a discipline that studies only one type of historical sources, but with different methods and for different purposes. It includes: archival science, archeography And textual criticism. This association is due to the fact that they one (general) object of study - written (text) sources. However, we note that each has its own subject and objectives of research.

Archival studies is a complex scientific discipline about the theory and practice of storing various documents (historical sources) in special repositories (archives).

The complexity of this discipline is given, firstly, by its peculiarity that, although written sources, as a rule, are collected in archives, sources of other types are often transferred here as well. This feature brings the practical work of archivists closer to the activities of museum workers. Both of them preserve and increase through targeted collection of national heritage - documents and antiquities, without which, as mentioned above, knowledge of the past is impossible and which are the breeding ground (information support) for historical research.

Secondly, the complexity of archival science is determined by its subject and tasks, which include not only the theoretical and practical development of methods for collecting, processing for the preservation and storage of historical materials, access to them by researchers, but also the study of the history of archival affairs, as well as the development of historical problems in based on documents found in repositories.

In terms of subject and objectives, archival science is similar to museology, but the object of the latter is wider. It (by definition) includes sources of all types - material, pictorial, phonic and written. Almost every museum has its own archival fund (sometimes very significant), including various written materials.

Archaeography is a special scientific historical discipline about the theory and practice of publishing historical sources. Its object is written sources, its subject is scientific description and bringing materials stored in archives to knowledge and into scientific circulation, which helps expand the source and information base of historical research. In addition, archaeographers also study the history of archeography, which in our country takes two centuries.

Archaeography is closely related to source studies, paleography, diplomacy, textual criticism and philology, archival studies and other scientific disciplines involved in the study of textual sources.

The first publications of historical sources were carried out in the first half XVIII V. V.N. Tatishchev (Russian Truth and Code of Laws of 1550). Then the Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles. In the second half of the century, Prince M.M. made a great contribution to the publication of sources. Shcherbatov, G.F. Miller, N.I. Novikov, I.I. Golikov. In 1811, the Commission for Printing State Charters and Treaties was created, and in 1834, the Archaeographic Commission. From the middle XIX V. The purposeful development of rules for the scientific publication of historical sources began. One of the first was N.G. Ustryalov, then his work at the beginning of the twentieth century. continued A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, A.A. Shakhmatov, S.B. Veselovsky and others.

In 1955, unified “Rules for the publication of historical documents” were created, which clearly spell out the requirements for scientific publication. They included all the parameters of archaeographic design: competent design of the title, which should reflect the name of the author and the time of creation of the source, its type and the main meaning of the content; compliance with scientific principles of text transmission; giving a legend, indicating the location of the source, its appearance and, if any, previous publications. A scientific publication should have included scientific reference apparatus: comments and notes explaining the text and revealing “dark places” in the source; deciphering abbreviations and other abbreviations; subject, name and geographical indexes. These rules have retained their significance to this day, and modern publishers are guided by them.

Textual criticism, a special scientific discipline whose object also includes written (textual) sources, can also be included in the same group of VID (with some reservations). The subject of textual criticism is the study of a text, all its attributes (design, structure, author, time, place and motives for creating the text, its origin), as well as content (lexical and semantic reading).

There are different opinions on the issue of the interdisciplinary status of textual criticism in the literature. A separate lecture is devoted to their analysis when characterizing the textual stage of source study.

Let's summarize.The transformation, the spin-off of some disciplines from their “ancestors” into separate types of disciplines, on the one hand, serves as clear evidence of that process differentiation sciences, which was mentioned at the beginning of the study of the problem of the interdisciplinary status of source studies.

From paleography, epigraphy, birchology and filigree science stood out; from diplomacy - sphragistics; from numismatics - bonistics; from heraldry - faleristics.

On the other hand, there is also a well-known integration VIEW, their convergence and intertwining of their tasks, methods and research results. Thus, specialists in metrology and numismatics cooperate very fruitfully in the study of various economic processes and phenomena. The use of specific research methods inherent in genealogy and heraldry helps to expand knowledge about the family ties of people.

The process of integration of disciplines manifests itself in two forms.

First, by borrowing research methods. At the present stage of development of sciences, borrowing methods developed by one discipline for certain types of sources is effectively used in the analysis of other types of sources. For example, formal analysis - the basis of diplomacy - is actively used to study office documentation and even journalism; in numismatics - methods of epigraphy; in neography – methods of paleography.

Secondly, by bringing new types and varieties of sources into the sphere of attention of specialists. A reasonable expansion of the research source base by attracting those sources that are the main objects of other types of research leads to very significant results, expressed in deepening our knowledge of the past, in understanding those details and nuances that previously remained outside the field of view of historians. Thus, for a more complete study of seals, award badges and family coats of arms, specialists from the relevant branches involve genealogical objects (pedigrees), office documents and acts. The close connection of archeography with many historical disciplines has already been mentioned above.

In general, auxiliary historical disciplines not only enrich each other’s scientific and methodological apparatus, but also help in historical and source studies. The auxiliary, applied nature of VID in no way detracts from their importance for historical science as a whole, since they saturate it with important and necessary (for dating, establishing authorship, understanding the origin of the text of sources, establishing their genealogical connections, etc.) information obtained by their – special methods.

However, it is necessary to emphasize that source study does not dissolve and is not included in the VID complex, since its object (all sources of any types, types and forms), subject and tasks, its epistemological functions are much broader than similar parameters in each of the auxiliary historical disciplines , and even their totality.

Thus, having considered the relationship of source study with historical science and with auxiliary historical disciplines, we can obtain two outputs. On the one hand, they are all very close and belong to the same system of historical knowledge (branches of science), and on the other, each of them is completely independent, since it solves different research problems. Historical science reconstructs the past, understands and explains it on the basis of derived patterns. Source studies develops the theory and practice of studying sources, determines at the experimental level the degree to which they fulfill their epistemological function, and on this basis gives recommendations to historians about the prospects and places for identifying sources and how to use them most effectively. Auxiliary historical disciplines enrich both historians and source scientists with additional information that contributes to a more complete and profound fulfillment of their research goals. Strelsky V.I. Theory and methodology of source study of the history of the USSR. - Kyiv, 1968. P. 57; Pronshtein A.P., Lubsky A.V. Methodological problems of source study in modern Soviet literature // Current problems of source study of the history of the USSR, special historical disciplines and their teaching in universities: Abstracts of reports of the III All-Union Conference. Novorossiysk, 1979. - M., 1979. P. 24; Source study of the history of the USSR: Textbook... 1981. P. 11.

Cm.: Shepelev L.E. Source study and auxiliary historical disciplines: on the question of their tasks and role in historical research // Auxiliary historical disciplines. - L., 1982. T. XIII. pp. 15 - 16.

The name of this type comes from the Latin word falera , denoting a large medal, a plaque that was placed on the banner of a legion that distinguished itself in battle or on the chest of famous Roman legionnaires.

A form is the structure of a document that has a clear sequence of parts of the text. This is a permanent sign system inherent in certain types of sources, in which the mandatory, legally regulated arrangement of parts of the text (initial and final protocols, clauses - separate paragraphs) itself carries information in coded (encrypted) form.

The word "archive" comes from the Greek arch é – beginning.

The rules, methods and methodology of search and research work in archives are discussed in lectures devoted to the heuristic stage of source research.

The issue of the difference between the publications of historical sources carried out for practical, scientific and educational purposes is discussed in more detail in the lecture devoted to the heuristic stage of source research. See also: Georgieva N.G., Georgiev V.A. Historical source study: problems of theory, history and methodology: Chapter from a textbook for students of historical specialties // Bulletin of RUDN University. Series "History of Russia". 2003. No. 2. P. 251 – 257.

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